SPIROGYRA

Systematic positions:

Kingdom: Plantae

Phylum : Chlorophytes

Class : Chlorophyceae

Order : conjugales

Family : Zygnemaceae

Genus : Spirogyra

Common name : Pond-scum/ Pond silk

Occurance:

Spirogyra is at large genus consisting of about 300 species and is cosmopolitan in distribution. They are found in fresh water such as pools, ponds, lakes, ditches etc and also in slow running water of rivers and streams. They occur as free floating bright green masses in the water but few species such as spirogyra dubia, spirogyra affinis, spirogyra rhijoides  develop specialized structure ‘hapteron’ with the help of which they can get attached with substratum. They are slippery in nature so are commonly known as Pond Silk or Water silk.

Vegetative structure:

The plant body of spirogyra is a gametophytic thallus which is elongated cylindrical, unbranced silky thread like structure known as filament. Eacj filament consists of numerous elongated rectangular cells joined end to end in a row. The cells are separated by a partition wall known as Septum.

Each cell can be differentiated In to two reasons;cell wall and protoplast.

Cell wall is the outermost protective double layere structure. The inner layer of which is made of cellulose and the outer layer contains pectose. The outermost lining of Pectose turns into Pectin and get dissolved in water to form Mucilage which surrounds the filament and forms Mucilagenous sheath.

The protoplast contains Plasma membrane,cytoplasm, single large centrally located vacuole and Chloroplast containing Pyrenoids.

The plasma membrane lies inner to the cell wall and semi permeable in nature(allows the passage of selective substance).

The granular cytoplasm is distributed in the peripheral region of the cell. Single large vacuole is bounded by Tonoplast snd containing watery fluids. Cell sap occupies the central part of the cell. Spirally coiled ribbon shaped chloroplast containing Pyrenoids are present in position. The number of chloroplast ranges from 1-16 depending upon the species. The rounded Proteineous structures known as Pyrenoids lie equidistant from each other inside the chloroplast. They contain Central core of starch surrounded by Protein plates and help in formation and storage of starch. Single prominent nucleus lies at the center of the cell which is held in position by the thin delicate, radiating cytoplasmic strands.

Reproduction:

All the three methods of reproduction i.e.

1.       Vegetative reproduction

2.       Asexual reproduction

3.       Sexual reproduction

Vegetative reproduction:

During favorable conditions spirogyra reproduces vegetatively by the method of Fragmentation. Fragmentation is brought about due to the mechanical injuries caused by the biting of the dished and other aquatic animals or due to the change in temperature , P^H , and other aquatic conditions or some intercalary sells of the filament (intermediate cells).

Fragmentation involves the breakage of filament into small pieces known as fragments each of which can develop into new filament by the process of repeated cell division and growth.

Asexual reproduction:

During unfavorable conditions some species of spirogyra reproduce asexually though rarely by the formation of –Akinetes

                                        -Aplanospores

                                        -Azygospores/Parthenospores

       

Akinetes: Few species of spirogyra such as spirogyra farlowii reproduce asexually by the formation of Skinetes. In this method the protoplast of few cells of the filaments lose  water get contracted and round off and develop thick walls around themselves due to the extra deposition of cellulose and Pectin and form the akinetes which are thick walled resting spores that can develop into new filament with the coming of favourable conditions.

Aplanospores: Eight species of spirogyra such as spirogyra aplospora,spirogyra kanalae form Aplanospores during asexual reproduction. Here, the protoplast of the cell after forming rounded structure develop thin cellulosic walls around themselves and form the aplonospore which are the thin walled,non motile spores that can germinate into new filament with the coming of favorable condition and after the decaying of the mother filament.

Azygospores/parthenospores:

in this method at the beginning of conjugation the protoplast of the conjugating cells  form gametes but due to some Physiological and atmospheric conditions these gametes fail to fuse and start functioning as the asexually reproducing spores known as Azygospores of Parthenospores.

        e.g Spirogyra mirabilis

              Spirogyra varians

              Spirogyra rhizoides

Sexual reproduction:

Sexual reproduction in spirogyra occurs by the method of conjugation. Conjugation is the process of fusion of two gametes out of which one acting as the male gamete passes through the conjugation tube to the female gamete. In spirogyra all the cells of the filament can form the gametes which are Morphologically similar and are referred to as Isogametes. This phenomena of sexual reproduction is known as Isogamous type of sexual reproduction. But at the time of conjugation one of the two isogametes shows motility and is considered as the male gamete. This phenomenon is referred to as Physiological anisogamy.

In spirogyra,two types of conjugation occurs:

1.       Scalariform and

2.       Lateral conjugation

Scalariform conjugation occurs between the two filaments whereas Lateral Conjugation occurs between the adjacent cells of single filament. Therefore after the completion of Scalariform Conjugation the cells of one filament appear empty and those of the another filament contain Zygospores, after completion of Lateral Conjugation empty and zygospore containing cells alternate in the filament.

Scalariform conjugation:

Occurs between the two filament  and seen in heterothallic/dioeious species

1.       Two filament of opposite strands come closer and lie parallel to each other throughout their length and get surrounded by commom Mucilagenous sheath(Due to attraction)

2.       The opposite cells of two filaments produce small papillae outgrowth /Processes from their opposir\te walls.

3.       These papillate outgrowth increase in their size and join through their anterior end. By this time filament secretes enzyme cytase. Two filament secrete the enzyme cytase due to the activity of which the partition wall is sissolved between the two process forming a continuing passage conjugation tube. The ladder like structure is formed due to conjugation of many cells. Same time the protoplast get contracted forms gametes known as Gametangia. Thus, forms gametes are Isogametes in gametangia(bag to hold gamete) out of the isogametes one gamete shows motility and can be determined as male gamete. The male gametes enters through conjugation and enters the female gametangia and fude with femate gamete and forms Zygote. This zygote after the secretion of thick wall forms Zygospores.

               

Lateral conjugation:

Occur rare type of conjugation and seen in Homothallic/Monoecious species. It is of two type direct and indirect.

                Indirect:  On the lateral side of filament above the septum the two adjacent cells gives papillate out growth. Cytase is secrete by the cells the partition wall get dissolved forming conjugation pasage due to the activity of enzyme cytase. Simultaneously the protoplast of the adjacent develops into the gamete which is Isogametes. The cells are referred as Gametangia.

After sometime one gamete out of two gamete shows motility and determined as male gamete. The male gamete passes through conjugation tube and enters the female gametangia and fuses with female gamete to form zygote then forms thick walled Zygospore.

                Direct: (Primitive type of conjugation)

During the time of conjugation few attached  species shows.

Two adjacent cells which are going to conjugate. The lower cell get enlarged and form barrel shaped structure termed as Female gamete.

The upper cell (male gametangia) forms male gamete which are some what elongated cylindrical and pointed lower end and here conjugation tube are not forming. The male gamete with pointed end directly pierces the septum and forms a hole in septum and passes through the hole into female GAmetangia where it fuse with female gamete to form gametes. The zygote after developing thick wall develops into zygospore.

Zygospore:

Zygospore represents the only diploid stage in the lifecycle of spirogyra and it is yellowish brown ellipsoidal structure having diploid nucleus and covered by three layered wall : - the outer exospore/exine

                              - The middle mesospore/mesine

                              - th innermost Endospore/ intine

The zygospore due to the thick wall can withstand long period of dry and dessication. They are liberated after the destruction of mother cell or mother filament and they remain at the bottom of water body. With the coming of rainy season,the zygospores start to germinate. Before germination,the diploid nucleus divides meiotically and form four haploid nuclei. Out of which three degenerate and one remains at functional nucleus. At the time of germination the exospore and mesospore rupture and the endospore along with functional nucleus comes out as single cell germinating tube which immediately divides into two celled structure. The basal cell forms the rhizoidal cell and the upper cell by repeated division and growth develops into new spirogyra filament.

Algae

Algae

Introduction:

Latin:  Alga-‘sea weeds’

-Study of algae is known as Algology / Phycology.

Phycology- Gr.words(phykos-sea weeds, logous-study)

Algae is group of Autotrophic plants which fail to show cellular differebtiation and they have the unicellular sex organs. If the sex organs are multicellular all the cells will be equally fertile. (That’s why they have more population and capability of adaptability too)

Characteristics of algae:

1.      Algae are found in aquatic habitat both in freshwater as well as marine water. Some of them are also found in terrestrial habitat where the moisture content is high.

2.      The plant body of the thallus organization of algae ranges from unicellular microscopic form like chlamydomonous(fresh water) to multicellular complex giant form like Macrocystis(180m,marine)

They also show colonial form like volvox and branced or unbranced filamentous form like spirogyra,cladophora (branched filamentous form)etc

Some of them also have structures showing superficial resemblance with the root,stems and leaves of higher palnts.

3.      Algae lack conducting(vascular bundles) and mechanical tissue(strength providing tissue) so they are soft to touch

4.      The cell is eukaryotic and the cell wall is made up of cellulose along with other substances like Pectin,algin,chitin,fucoidin,etc. forming two layers.

5.      The reserved food material is starch but depending upon the classes other substances may also form the reserve food substances.

6.      The pigments present in algae are chlorophyll-‘a’, chlorophyll-‘b’, xanthophylls, carotenes and phycobillins/billiproteins. (for color and solar energy trapping pigments)

7.      Reproduction takes by vegetative asexual and sexual method.

-Asexual reproduction takes place by spores i.e. motile and non motile spores eg Zygospores

-vegetative reproduction by budding, fission etc

-sexual reproduction by fusion of gametes forms by two organisms of same species.

Classification of Algae:

F.E Fritsch(1935,1945) Phycologist, In his book the structure and reproduction in algae classified the broad group algae into Eleven classes on the basis of body structure,nature of reserved food materials,types of pigments,cell wall composition,methodsof reproduction etc.

Three Classes

1.      Chlorophyceae(Green algae)

2.      Phaephyceae(Brown Algae)

3.      Rhodophyceae(Red Algae)

1.Chlorophyceae:-

Largest class of algae and includes about 425 genera and over 7000 species.

Characteristics of Chlorophyceae:

a)      Habitat:

The members of chlorophyceae are found in fresh water and are cosmopolitan in distribution(found everywhere) some species are found in amrine water also whereas few species are found to occur in terrestrial habitat such as moist soil, moist and shaded part of trees, moist rocks etc.

-Freshwater form: chlamydomonas, spirogyra, pithophora, zygnema

-Marine water form: bryopsis, caulerpa, codium

- Terrestrial form:protococcus, trentipohlia.

b)      Habit:

The chlorophyceae show wide variety in the thallus organization of its constituent members such as;

-Unicellular,microscopic,motile form :chlamydomonas

-Unicellular, microscopic,non-motile form:chlorella, chlorococcum

-Multicellular/colonial, motile form: volvox,Eudorina,Pandorina

-Multicellular/Colonial,non-motile form: Hydrodictyon, Pediastrum

-Filamentous: Spirogyra,Oedogonium,Cladophora

Chara and nitella have developed structures

c)      The cell wall is double layered inner layer is made up of cellulose and the outer layer is of Pectose(Pectin+water=Pectose;slippery in nature)

d)      The reserved food material is starch.

e)      The pigments present in Chlorophyceae are chlorophyll-‘a’, chlorophyll-‘b’, xanthophylls, carotenes but Phycobillins/biliprotein are absent.

f)       Zygote represents the only diploid stage in the lifecycle of Chlorophyceae.

(plant body ois gametophyte forming gametes)i.e Haploid

Only zygote is representing sporophyte.

g)      The number and shape of chloroplast of different algae members of

Chlorophyceae differ from each other and this character is considered as one of the important character for the identification of the species

-Cup shaped :   chlamydomonas, volvox

-ring shaped : Ulothrix

-Reticulate : Oedogonium,Hydrodictyon

-Spirally coiled : Spirogyra

-Star-shaped : Zygnema

h)      The chloroplast contain distinct rounded proteinaceous  body inside them known as Pyrenoid which help in storing/storage of food material.

2. Phaeophyceae:

            Characters of Phaeophyceae:

1.      Habitat:  The brown algae are predominantly found in the marine water s\except few species such as Pleurocladia,lithoderma,spacelaria which are found in fresh water. They are generally found attached to the substratum with the help of specialized structure khown as ‘holdfast’ except few species as Sargassam (marine species)which form free floating masses. E.g other marine species are Fucus, Ectocarpus etc ; freshwater species are Pleurocladia,lithoderma,sphacelaria are fresh water.

2.      Habit: Brown algae are advanced group of algae so unicellular,colonial and unbranced filamentous forms are absent. They show Heterotrichous filamentous form as the simplest form.In Heterotrichous filaments,they have got two distinct types of brances.The random branches are absent.

3.      In some species the plant body is differentiated into –Holdfast,stem like stipe and flattened leaves like blades. They have superficial resemblance like above insome species like  Fucus.

4.      The cell wall is double layered. Inner layer os made up of cellulose and outer layer contains Fucidin (fucinic acid)and algin(alginic acid) along with Fucin.These can absorb large amount of water so water remain inside plant body fork very long period even during winter.

5.      The reserved food materials fare Laminarin and Mannitol along with this Chloride,Iodides,sucrose and glycerol are also Present.

6.      The pigments of Phaeophyceae are chlorophyll-‘a’, chlorophyll-‘c’,β-carotene and Fucoxanthin( brown coloured Xanthophyll).  They lack chlorophyll-‘b’ and billiproteins.

7.      The reproduction takes place by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods. The diploid zygote directly germinates into sporophytic plant body without zygotic meosis. Hence the plant body is sporophyte and gametophyte only during meiosis.

3.Rhodophyceae:

           

            Characteristics of Rhodophyceae:

1.      The red algae are found in marine water their number is high in deeper and warmer parts of subtropical and tropical water but their number is less in polar seas. Few fresh water species such as Bactrachospermium, Lamanea, Thorea are found in cold and fre flowing water. Their number is high in marine water. Unicellular red algae like Porphyridium is found in terrestrial habitat. Some red algae like Polyciphonia, Calceocolax are in Parasitic form of Rhodophyceae.

2.      Habit: Except few unicellular form like porphyridium palmelloid form like Asterocytic,Filamentous form like Goniotrichum most of the red algae are categorized in to two types on the basis of their thallus organization.they are:

-Uniaxial(one axis) form: Bactrachospermum, Dumontia,Delesseria

-Multiaxial(many axis and each axis giving many branches) :Polysiphonia,Helminthocladia, chondrus

3.       Cell wall is double layered, inner-layer is made up of cellulose and outer layer contains pectic material along with polysulphated esters such as agar,porphyrans.

4.      The reserved food materials are FLoridean starch(complex carbohydrates),florodoside,mannoglycerate and fat droplets.

5.      Rhodophyceae reproduces by vegetative,asexual and sexual methods

-vegetative by fragments in some cases

-non-motile sspores help in asexual which is Peculiar character

-sexual method by progamous.

6.      The pigments in Rhodophyceae are

-chlorophyll-‘a’ (C₅₅H₇₂O₅N₄Mg)

-chlorophyll-‘b’ (C₅₅H₇₀O₆N₄Mg)

-Carotenes

-xanthophylls

-r-phycocyanin

-r-phycoerythrin

In bottom the light energy of sun cannot reach only blue and violet rays could reach which are trapped by the phycobillins and transferred to chlorophyll. They occur red at bottom when brought surface they occurs white in colour.